ASSESSING THE EFFECTIVENESS AND SAFETY OF COVID- 19 VACCINES
Abstract
While the coronavirus was a global health crisis, it also generated enormous socio-economic challenges such as trading. Buying and selling, socio-economic meltdown, health sector breakdown. Poor housing facilities. Poverty, unemployment, low income, inequality, and epileptic power supply. Amongst others, in developing countries like Nigeria. This thesis adopts a systemic approach, using a random-effects meta- analysis framework to aggregate findings from peer-reviewed studies conducted between 2021 and 2024 to account for between-study heterogeneity.
The pooled overall effect size (exp (b)) was I.658 (95% CI: 1.407- 1.953, P<0.0001) indicating a statistically vaccine effectiveness across the studies. Substantial heterogeneity wvas observed among the studies, as indicated by an [² = 96.8%, which suggests variability in study populations, vaccines types. or methodologies.
Keywords:
COVID-19, Socio-economic impact, Meta-analysis, Vaccine effectiveness and HeterogeneityDownloads
Published
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.15674068Issue
Section
How to Cite
License
Copyright (c) 2025 Marry U. Adehi, Bilkisu Maijama’a, Habiba Bala Shuaibu, Abubakar Muhammad Auwal.

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
References
Borenstein, M., Hedges, L. V., Higgins, J. P. T., & Rothstein, H. R. (2009). Introduction to meta-analysis. John Wiley & Sons.
Egger, M., Smith, G. D., Schneider, M., & Minder, C. (1997). Bias in meta-analysis detected by a simple, graphical test. BMJ, 315(7109), 629-634.
Higgins, J. P. T., & Thompson, S. G. (2002). Quantifying heterogeneity in a meta-analysis. Statistics in Medicine, 21(11), 1539-1558.
Higgins, J. P. T., Green, S., & Scholten, R. J. P. M. (2011). *Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions. John Wiley & Sons.
Patton, M. Q. (2015). Qualitative Research and Evaluation Methods: Integrating Theory and Practice. Sage Publications.
DerSimonian, R., & Laird, N. (1986). Meta-analysis in clinical trials. 1986. Controlled Clinical Trials, 7(3), 177-188. https://doi.org/10.1016/0197-2456(86)90046-2
Borenstein, M., Hedges, L. V., Higgins, J. P., & Rothstein, H. R. (2009). Introduction to Meta-Analysis. John Wiley & Sons.
Higgins, J. P., Thompson, S. G., Deeks, J. J., and Altman, D. G. (2003). Measuring inconsistency in meta-analyses. BMJ, 327(7414), 557-560.
Viechtbauer, W. (2010). Conduct meta-analyses in R using the meta for package. Journal of Statistical Software, 36(3), 1-48.
Abdel-Moneim, A. S. (2021). Community mitigation during SARS-COV-2 pandemic: Mission impossible for developing countries. Population Health Management, 24(1), 6. https://doi.org/10.1089/pop.2020.0095
Abiodun, M. G., Adekeye, O. A., & Iruonogbe, T. C. (2011). CounCounselingvices for remediating the biopsychosocial challenges of older adults in Nigeria. Journal of Functional Management, 3(1), 89–98.
Adepoju, P. (2020). Nigeria’s response to COVID-19: First case detected in Sub-Saharan Africa. Nature Medicine, 26(4), 444–448.
Adeshokan, O. (2020). Coronavirus: Food insecurity fall-out from Nigerians lockdown. The African Report. https://www.theafricareport.com/27676/coronavirusfood-insecurity-fallout-from-Nigeria’s-lockdown/
Adeyeye, P. (2020). Social protection for the disabled in Nigeria during COVID-19 pandemic. https://www.dataphyte.com/covid19nigeria/social-protection-for-the-disabled-in-nigeria-during-covid-19-pandemic/
African Union. (2020). Impact of the coronavirus (COVID-19) on the African economy. Author. Africanews. (2020). Coronavirus: AFDB approves $2M package for WHO’s Africa response. Africanews. https://www.africanews.com/2020/04/02/ economics-of-covid-19-impact-On-Africa/
Agbakwuru, J. (March 9, 2020). Buhari sets up 12-member Task Force to control Coronavirus. Vanguard News https://www.vanguardngr.com/2020/03/buhari-sets-up-12-member-task-force-to-control-coronavirus/
Ajisegiri, W. S., Odusanya, O. O., & Joshi, R. (2020). COVID-19 outbreak situation in Nigeria and the need for effective engagement of community health workers for epidemic response. Global Biosecurity, 1(4). https://doi.org/10.31646/gbio.69
Amadasun, S. (2020). COVID-19 pandemic in Africa: What lessons for social work education and practice? International Social Work. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/341700675 COVID-19 Pandemic in Africa What Lessons for Social Work Education and Practice.
Ayeni, T. (2020). Coronavirus: Nigeria’s varied response to controlling COVID-19. 2020. The Africa Report. https:// www.theafricareport.com/27773/coronavirus-Nigeria-varied-responses-to-controlling-covid-19/
Badru, A. (2020, September 7). COVID-19: Oyo, World Bank, CSDA, and others distribute palliatives to 200 less privileged, counsel against depression. Vanguard. https://www.vanguardngr.com/2020/09/covid-19- Oyo-world-bank-csda-others-distribute-palliatives-to-200-less-privileged-counsel-against-depression/
Kapata, N., Ihekweazu, C., Ntoumi, F., Raji, T., ChandaKapata, P., Mwaba, P., & Zumla, A. (2020). Is Africa prepared to tackle the COVID-19 (SARS-CoV-2) epidemic? Lessons learned from past outbreaks, ongoing Pan-African public health efforts, and implications for the future. International Journal of Infectious Diseases 93, 233–236. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. ijid.2020.02.049
Lazarus, K. U., & Oluwole, D. A. (2020). Demographic factors, attitude, and knowledge of persons with special needs toward COVID-19 in Nigeria: Implications for counseling and social policy. Emerald Open Research, 2, 55. https://doi.org/10.35241/ emeraldopenres.13800.2
Nigeria Center for Disease Control. (2020b). The first case of coronavirus disease confirmed in Nigeria. https:// ncdc.gov.ng/news/227/first-case-of-coronavirus-disease-confirmed-in-Nigeria
Nigeria Center for Disease Control. (2020c). NCDC initiates new measures for pandemic control as COVID-19 spreads to 12 states in Nigeria. https://ncdc.gov.ng/ reports/weekly
Nnama-Okechukwu, C. U., Chukwu, E. C., & Nkechukwu, C. N. (2020). COVID-19 in Nigeria: Knowledge and compliance with preventive measures. Social Work in Public Health, 35(7), 590–602. https://doi.org/10.108 0/19371918.2020.1806985
Scarnera, A. (2020). Coronavirus pandemic and social work in hospital: An Italian experience. The International Association of Schools of Social Work. Available online: https://www.iassw-aiets.org/covid-19/5007- coronavirus-pandemic-and-social-work-in-hospital-an-italian-experience/
Sinoruka, F. (2020). Roma and Egyptian Women in Albania facing a double burden to access health services. https://www.reporter.al/grate-rome-dheegjiptiane-ne-shqiperine veshtiresi-te-dyfshte-per-teaksesuar-sherbimetmjekesore/?
Socio-Economic Rights and Accountability Project [SERAP]. (2020). SERAP asks FG and CBN to provide details on COVID-19 relief funds and school feeding. Author. http://serap-nigeria.org/serap-asks-fg-cbn-to-provide-spending-details-on-covid-19- relief-funds-school-feeding.ngo/
Sumner, A., Hoy, C., & Ortiz-Juarez, E. (2020). Estimates of the impact of COVID-19 on global poverty. WIDER Working Paper, 2020/43
Daniel, G., Christoph, L. R., Andres, C. A., & Haoyu, W. (2020). The impact of COVID-19 (Coronavirus) on global poverty: Why Sub-Saharan Africa might be the region hardest hit. https://blogs.worldbank. Org/open-data/impact-covid-19-coronavirus-global-poverty-why-sub-saharan-africa-might-be-region-hardest-hit
Dixit, S., Ogundeji, Y. K., & Onwujekwe, O. (2020). How well has Nigeria responded to COVID-19. Future Development. https://www.brookings.edu/blog/future-development/2020/07/02/ how-well-has-Nigeria-responded-to-covid-19/
IFSW. (2020). Nigeria. COVID-19: Call for sober reflections and calmness. Author. https://www.ifsw.org/ Nigeria-covid-19-call-for-sober-reflections-andcalmness/
International Monetary Fund. (2020). The virus outbreak will slow global economic growth this year. Aljazeera. https://www.aljazeera.com/ajimpact/ imf-virus-outbreak-slow-global-economic-growthyear-200305013321840.html?
Ioannidis, J. P. (2020). Coronavirus disease 2019: The harms of exaggerated information and lack of evidence-based measures. European Journal of Clinical Investigation, 50(4), e13223. https://doi.org/10.1111/ eci.13223
Isangha, S. O., Choi, W. M. A., & Chiu, M. Y. L. (2020). COVID-19: Where are the Nigerian social workers? Qualitative Social Work, 20, https://doi. org/10.1177/1473325020973336
Johnson, D. (2020, August 10). Palliatives: Over 200,000 households touched during COVID-19 in Ondo. Vanguard. Retrieved from https://www.vanguardngr.com/2020/08/ palliatives-over-200000-households-touched-during-covid-19-in-ondo-akeredolu